Clearly there were some exceptions to the official approval of Shakespeare, and the great patriotic plays, most notably Henry V were shelved. In addition, it is not known whether the publication of the sonnets was even authorised by Shakespeare. This claim that Shakespeare's work breaks through all creative boundaries to reveal a chaotic, teeming, contradictory world became characteristic of Romantic criticism, later being expressed by Victor Hugo in the preface to his play Cromwell, in which he lauded Shakespeare as an artist of the grotesque, a genre in which the tragic, absurd, trivial and serious were inseparably intertwined. Other writers have had these qualities, but with Shakespeare the keenness of mind was applied not to abstruse or remote subjects but to human beings and their complete range of emotions and conflicts. Jaggard issued an expanded edition of The Passionate Pilgrim in 1612, containing additional poems on the theme of Helen of Troy, announced on the title page ("Whereunto is newly added two Love Epistles, the first from Paris to Hellen, and Hellen's answere back again to Paris"). Many of these claims are supported only by debatable ideas about what constitutes "Shakespeare's style". William Shakespeare study guide by danielle778 includes 12 questions covering vocabulary, terms and more. Editor of. two other successful playwrights were ___ and ___ rose, curtain. In the 18th century, Shakespeare dominated the London stage, while Shakespeare productions turned increasingly into the creation of star turns for star actors. During the Interregnum (1642–1660), all public stage performances were banned by the Puritan rulers. [34][35] Shakespeare's fellow members of the Lord Chamberlain's Men acted in his plays. William Shakespeare explained in five questions. In some of his early works (like Romeo and Juliet), he even added punctuation at the end of these iambic pentameter lines to make the rhythm even stronger. Bellott later sued his father-in-law for defaulting on part of the promised dowry, and Shakespeare was called as a witness. While there is much dispute about the exact chronology of Shakespeare plays, the plays tend to fall into three main stylistic groupings. The 1609 text is dedicated to one " Mr. Shakespeare's final plays hark back to his Elizabethan comedies in their use of romantic situation and incident. [48], A 1981 production of The Merchant of Venice was a hit with Chinese audiences as the play was seen promoting the theme of justice and fairness in life, with the character of Portia being especially popular as she is seen as standing for, as one critic wrote, "the humanist spirit of the Renaissance" with its striving for "individuality, human rights and freedom". Shakespeare has been identified as the author of two epitaphs to John Combe, a Stratford businessman, and one to Elias James, a brewer who lived in the Blackfriars area of London. [21][22], This nine-verse love lyric was ascribed to Shakespeare in a manuscript collection of verses probably written in the late 1630s. These were in fact by Thomas Heywood, from his Troia Britannica, which Jaggard had published in 1609. Released for printing c.1598 as Shakespeare nearing completion of. Victorian productions of Shakespeare often sought pictorial effects in "authentic" historical costumes and sets. In a series of "Elizabethan" productions on a thrust stage, he paid fresh attention to the structure of the drama. It praises Combe for giving money in his will to the poor. Beginning in the late 17th century, Shakespeare began to be considered the supreme English-language playwright (and, to a lesser extent, poet). They are episodic, packed with character and incident; they are loosely unified by a theme or character. Most of the Roman and Greek plays are based on Plutarch's Parallel Lives (from the 1579 English translation by Sir Thomas North), and the English history plays are indebted to Raphael Holinshed's 1587 Chronicles. The collection published as The Passionate Pilgrim contains genuine poems by Shakespeare along with poems known to have been written by other authors, along with some of unknown authorship. Shakespeare would have learned this theory at grammar school, where Plautus and especially Terence were key parts of the curriculum[2] and were taught in editions with lengthy theoretical introductions.[3]. Scholars have suggested various reasons for the existence of these plays. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard"). Some of Shakespeare's plays, particularly the history plays, were reprinted frequently in cheap quarto (i.e. Theatres and theatrical scenery became ever more elaborate in the 19th century, and the acting editions used were progressively cut and restructured to emphasise more and more the soliloquies and the stars, at the expense of pace and action. The epitaph for James was on a memorial in the church of St. Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe. Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets. The long-lived belief that the Romantics were the first generation to truly appreciate Shakespeare and to prefer him to Ben Jonson is contradicted by praise from writers throughout the 18th century. He was included in some contemporary lists of leading poets, but he lacked the stature of Edmund Spenser or Philip Sidney. The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the earlier theatres, and roofed rather than open to the sky; it resembled a modern theatre in ways that its predecessors did not. W.H. This date provides a convenient symmetry because Shakespeare died on the same day, April 23 ( May 3 on the Gregorian calendar), in 1616. For Shakespeare, as he began to write, both traditions were alive; they were, moreover, filtered through the recent success of the University Wits on the London stage. Additionally, in an age before standardised spelling, Shakespeare often wrote a word several times in a different spelling, and this may have contributed to some of the transcribers' confusion. Its authorship has been disputed by several scholars. Despite individual differences, the public theatres were three stories high and built around an open space at the center. [42] The violence and bloody chaos of Macbeth reminded Chinese audiences of the violence and bloody chaos of the Cultural Revolution, and furthermore, the story of a national hero becoming a tyrant complete with a power-hungry wife was seen as a parallel with Mao Zedong and his wife, Jiang Qing. These plays, generally celebrating piety, use personified moral attributes to urge or instruct the protagonist to choose the virtuous life over Evil. William Shakespeare is known most for his playwriting, but he also wrote 154 sonnets as well as a number of other poems. [22] Vissarion Belinsky wrote he had been “enslaved by the drama of Shakespeare”. ), and the so-called 'Bad Quartos', are (printers' errors aside) his own first versions of famous later plays. The cause of Shakespeare's death is unknown. Theatre was changing when Shakespeare first arrived in London in the late 1580s or early 1590s. Sams believes the manuscript is Shakespeare's hand. [21] Shakespeare criticism also increasingly spoke to readers, rather than to theatre audiences. [45], Likewise, a 1982 production of King Lear was hailed by the critics as the story of "moral decline", of a story "when human beings' souls were so polluted that they even mistreated their aged parents", an allusion to the days of the Cultural Revolution when the young people serving in the Red Guard had berated, denounced, attacked and sometimes even killed their parents for failing to live up to "Mao Zedong thought". This led to bootleg copies of his plays, which were often based on people trying to remember what Shakespeare had actually written. Architect and author John Milnes Baker has taken the debate a step further by writing “The Case for Edward de Vere as the Real William Shakespeare.” There are many who may not have heard of him. Additionally, there were efforts (notably by the BBC) to ensure that there was a filmed or videotaped version of every Shakespeare play. He said: "It was You Ladies that restor’d Shakespeare to the Stage you form’d yourselves into a Society to protect his Fame, and Erected a Monument to his and your own honour in Westminster Abbey."[4]. No one who has seen the Comédie-Française perform his plays at the Salle Richelieu in Paris is likely to forget the special buzz in the audience, for the bard is the darling of France. As the concept of literary originality grew in importance, critics were horrified at the idea of adapting Shakespeare's tragedies for the stage by putting happy endings on them, or editing out the puns in Romeo and Juliet. William Shakespeare, Shakespeare also spelled Shakspere, byname Bard of Avon or Swan of Avon, (baptized April 26, 1564, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England—died April 23, 1616, Stratford-upon-Avon), English poet, dramatist, and actor often called the English national poet and considered by many to be the greatest dramatist of all time. The general consensus is 37. A joking epitaph is also supposed to have been created for Ben Jonson. In 1796 William Henry Ireland claimed to have found a lost play of Shakespeare entitled Vortigern and Rowena. In his own time, William Shakespeare (1564–1616) was rated as merely one among many talented playwrights and poets, but since the late 17th century has been considered the supreme playwright and poet of the English language. There are stories—given currency long after his death—of stealing deer and getting into trouble with a local magnate, Sir Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, near Stratford; of earning his living as a schoolmaster in the country; of going to London and gaining entry to the world of theatre by minding the horses of theatregoers. To provide a modern text in such cases, editors must face the choice between the original first version and the later, revised, usually more theatrical version. In fact, as the director of the Duke's Company, Davenant was legally obliged to reform and modernise Shakespeare's plays before performing them, an ad hoc ruling by the Lord Chamberlain in the battle for performance rights which "sheds an interesting light on the many 20th-century denunciations of Davenant for his adaptations". Most of the Roman and Greek plays are based on Plutarch's Parallel Lives (from the 1579 English translation by Sir Thomas North),[30] and the English history plays are indebted to Raphael Holinshed's 1587 Chronicles. Not only did the regime appropriate the Bard but it also appropriated Elizabethan England itself. Bristol, Michael, and Kathleen McLuskie (eds.). He was also a managing partner in the Lord Chamberlain's Men, one of the prominent acting companies in London. Unlike his contemporary Ben Jonson, Shakespeare did not have direct involvement in publishing his plays and produced no overall authoritative version of his plays before he died. (He later produced another pseudo-Shakespearean play, Henry II.) Maric, Jasminka, "Philosophy in Hamlet", author's edition, Belgrade, 2018. Shakespeare performances reflected the tensions of the times, and early in the century, Barry Jackson of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre began the staging of modern-dress productions, thus starting a new trend in Shakesperian production. The Comedy of Errors, an adaptation of Menaechmi, follows the model of new comedy closely. However, it was more ambiguous and complex in its meanings, and less concerned with simple allegory. There is good evidence to associate her with a family of Hathaways who inhabited a beautiful farmhouse, now much visited, 2 miles [3.2 km] from Stratford.) Sams accepts the suggestion that this was written in 1596, after the. Get kids back-to-school ready with Expedition: Learn! Festival of Sacrifice: The Past and Present of the Islamic Holiday of Eid al-Adha. As a result, Shakespeare and the playing companies he worked with did not distribute scripts of his plays, for fear that the plays would be stolen. This poem was published as an appendix to Shakespeare's sonnets in 1609. While many passages in Shakespeare's plays are written in prose, he almost always wrote a large proportion of his plays and poems in iambic pentameter. The authorship of some poems published under Shakespeare's name in his lifetime has also been questioned. Moreover, Hirsh asserts that in soliloquies in other Shakespearean plays, the speaker is entirely in character within the play's fiction. Written by Shakespeare c. 1589, revised 1593–1594. Across the North Sea, Shakespeare remained influential in Germany. The facts about his reputation can be surmised from fragmentary evidence. The Sonnets were written over a number of years, probably beginning in the early 1590s. Ireland claimed to have found in a trunk a goldmine of lost documents of Shakespeare's including two plays, Vortigern and Rowena and Henry II. Charles Lamb saw any form of stage representation as distracting from the true qualities of the text. What Marlowe and Kyd did for tragedy, John Lyly and George Peele, among others, did for comedy: they offered models of witty dialogue, romantic action, and exotic, often pastoral location that formed the basis of Shakespeare's comedic mode throughout his career.[7]. Politically acceptable writers had simply been unable to fill the gap, or had only been able to do so with the worst kinds of agitprop. Although there were many believers in the provenance of the Papers they soon came under fierce attack from scholars who pointed out numerous inaccuracies. The plays have often been drastically adapted in performance. These expensive reading editions are the first visible sign of a rift between Shakespeare on the stage and Shakespeare for readers, a rift that was to widen over the next two centuries. Shakespeare's plays are widely regarded as being among the greatest in the English language and are continually performed around the world. Shakespeare’s original funeral monument at Holy Trinity Church was a bag of grain which shows that he was also famous for this work during his lifetime as well as his writing. [24] Later on, in the 19th century, the novelist Ivan Turgenev often wrote essays on Shakespeare with the best known being “Hamlet and Don Quixote”. Maric, Jasminka, "Filozofija u Hamletu", Alfa BK Univerzitet, Beograd, 2015. The account cannot be verified but has led some scholars to speculate that Shakespeare may have died of typhus. Starlings were brought to North America in 1890 when Shakespeare fanatic Eugene Schieffelin decided Central Park should contain all the songbirds mentioned in Shakespeare's works. [19] By the middle of the 19th century, Shakespeare had been incorporated into the pantheon of German literature. This film recounts the life of Shakespeare from his early boyhood through his productive years as a playwright and actor in London. Shakespeare occupies a position unique in world literature. Thy works are not as those of other men, simply and merely great works of art; but are also like the phenomena of nature, like the sun and the sea, the stars and the flowers,—like frost and snow, rain and dew, hail-storm and thunder, which are to be studied with entire submission of our own faculties...". In addition, the fact that Shakespeare did not produce an authoritative print version of his plays during his life accounts for part of the textual problem often noted with his plays, which means that for several of the plays there are different textual versions. He also died on his birthday, if the tradition that he was born on April 23 is correct. Shakespeare’s original funeral monument at Holy Trinity Church was a bag of grain which shows that he was also famous for this work during his lifetime as well as his writing. In 1807, August Wilhelm Schlegel translated all of Shakespeare's plays into German, and such was the popularity of Schlegel's translation (which is generally regarded as one of the best translations of Shakespeare into any language) that German nationalists were soon starting to claim that Shakespeare was actually a German playwright who just written his plays in English. [32] The tyranny of Claudius resembled the tyranny of Stalin with gigantic portraits and bursts of Claudius being prominent in the background of the film, suggesting that Claudius has engaged in a "cult of personality". Like most playwrights of his period, Shakespeare did not always write alone, and a number of his plays were collaborative, although the exact number is open to debate. His poetic artistry helped raise the status of popular theatre, permitting it to be admired by intellectuals as well as by those seeking pure entertainment. A typical example is provided in Macbeth: as Macbeth leaves the stage to murder Duncan (to the sound of a chiming clock), he says,[22]. In the past editors have resolved this problem by conflating the texts to provide what they believe to be a superior Ur-text, but critics now argue that to provide a conflated text would run contrary to Shakespeare's intentions. England had little modern literature before the 1570s, and detailed critical commentaries on modern authors did not begin to appear until the reign of Charles I. As a result, the problem of identifying what Shakespeare actually wrote became a major concern for most modern editions. The staging of the reported sea fights and barge scene in Antony and Cleopatra was one spectacular example. The number of analytical approaches became more diverse by the latter part of the century, as critics applied theories such as structuralism, New Historicism, Cultural materialism, African American studies, queer studies, and literary semiotics to Shakespeare's works.[28][29]. [40] The very act of putting on a play by Shakespeare, formerly condemned as a "bourgeois Western imperialist author" whom no Chinese could respect, was in and of itself an act of quiet dissent. [51] By contrast, in the West, Shylock is usually presented as a nuanced villain, of a man who has never held power over a Christian before, and lets that power go to his head. Written by Shakespeare late 1580s, as Jonson and Dryden reported. As a result, the problem of identifying what Shakespeare actually wrote is a major concern for most modern editions. Shakespeare's plays tend to be placed into three main stylistic groups: The earlier plays range from broad comedy to historical nostalgia, while the middle-period plays tend to be grander in terms of theme, addressing such issues as betrayal, murder, lust, power, and ambition. There are, however, many contemporary allusions to him as a writer, and these add a reasonable amount of flesh and blood to the biographical skeleton. To be a star of the legitimate drama came to mean being first and foremost a "great Shakespeare actor", with a famous interpretation of, for men, Hamlet, and for women, Lady Macbeth, and especially with a striking delivery of the great soliloquies. Shakespeare's works have been translated into every major living language, and his plays are continually performed all around the world. [33] Hamlet in this film resembles a Soviet dissident who despite his own hesitation, fears and doubts, can no longer stand the moral rot around him. [14] In 1786, Shakespeare's reputation in Russia was greatly enhanced when the Empress Catherine the Great translated a French version of The Merry Wives of Windsor into Russian (Catherine did not know English) and had it staged in St. [6] In 1601, in the Free City of Danzig (modern Gdańsk, Poland), which had a large English merchant colony living within its walls, a company of English actors arrived to put on plays by Shakespeare. [citation needed] The attribution was supported by James S. Shapiro and Juliet Dusinberre. [37] The philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre wrote that French intellectuals had been “abruptly reintegrated into history” by the German occupation of 1940–44 as the old teleological history version of history with the world getting progressively better as led by France not longer held, and as such the "nihilist" and "chaotic" plays of Shakespeare finally found an audience in France. The acme of spectacle, star, and soliloquy Shakespeare performance came with the reign of actor-manager Henry Irving at the Royal Lyceum Theatre in London from 1878–99. [37][38] By Sams' authorship- and dating-arguments, Shakespeare wrote not only the earliest "modern" chronicle play, The Troublesome Reign, c. 1588, but also "the earliest known modern comedy and tragedy", A Shrew and the Ur-Hamlet ( = the 1603 Quarto). Romantic critics such as Samuel Taylor Coleridge then raised admiration for Shakespeare to adulation or bardolatry (from bard + idolatry), in line with the Romantic reverence for the poet as prophet and genius. Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior, when he was 18. Other writers have applied their keenness of mind in this way, but Shakespeare is astonishingly clever with words and images, so that his mental energy, when applied to intelligible human situations, finds full and memorable expression, convincing and imaginatively stimulating. Shakespeare's sonnets are a collection of 154 poems that deal with such themes as love, beauty, and mortality. He and the other members of The Globe Theater put on many of the plays that they wrote. The next date of interest is found in the records of the Stratford church, where a daughter, named Susanna, born to William Shakespeare, was baptized on May 26, 1583. Shakespeare's poems were reprinted far more frequently than his plays; but Shakespeare's plays were written for performance by his own company, and because no law prevented rival companies from using the plays, Shakespeare's troupe took steps to prevent his plays from being printed. His second sonnet begins with the line, "When forty winters shall beseige they brow. Therefore, a Renaissance playgoer who was familiar with this dramatic convention would have been alert to Hamlet's expectation that his soliloquy be overheard by the other characters in the scene. 145) from early 1580s, latest (nos. The rift between Shakespeare on the stage and Shakespeare on the page was at its widest in the early 19th century, at a time when both forms of Shakespeare were hitting peaks of fame and popularity: theatrical Shakespeare was successful spectacle and melodrama for the masses, while book or closet drama Shakespeare was being elevated by the reverential commentary of the Romantics into unique poetic genius, prophet, and bard. No writer’s living reputation can compare to that of Shakespeare, whose notable plays included the tragedies Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, and Othello. Various documents recording legal affairs and commercial transactions show that Shakespeare grew rich enough during his stay in London to buy a property in Blackfriars, London and own the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place. He was included in some contemporary lists of leading poets, but he seems to have lacked the stature of the aristocratic Philip Sidney, who became a cult figure due to his death in battle at a young age, or of Edmund Spenser. First Quarto is Sha kespeare's early version, written c. 1593. Where and exactly when are not known, but the episcopal registry at Worcester preserves a bond dated November 28, 1582, and executed by two yeomen of Stratford, named Sandells and Richardson, as a security to the bishop for the issue of a license for the marriage of William Shakespeare and “Anne Hathaway of Stratford,” upon the consent of her friends and upon once asking of the banns. In the 21st century most inhabitants of the English-speaking world encounter Shakespeare at school at a young age, and there is an association by some students of his work with boredom and incomprehension and of "high art" not easily appreciated by popular culture, an ironic fate considering the social mix of Shakespeare's audience. Shakespeare's plays are a canon of approximately 39 dramatic works written by English poet, playwright, and actor William Shakespeare. In addition to his sonnets, Shakespeare also wrote several longer poems, Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece and A Lover's Complaint. [5] The new drama combined the rhetorical complexity of the academic play with the bawdy energy of the moralities. That many of his plays were pirated suggests his popularity in the book market, and the regular patronage of his company by the court, culminating in 1603 when James I turned it into the "King's Men," suggests his popularity among higher stations of society. This play of conspiracy has always been performed at critical moments in the history of our nation". Poetic conventions and dramatic traditions, Linguistic, historical, textual, and editorial problems, Understanding Shakespeare: Literary criticism, New England Historical Society - The Provincetown Players Revolutionize American Theater, Spartacus Educational - Biography of William Shakespeare, The Poetry Archive - Biography of William Shakespeare, Academy of American Poets - Biography of William Shakespeare, The British Library - Discovering Literature: Biography of Shakespeare, William Shakespeare - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), William Shakespeare - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). The Folio text revised and enlarged 1599. Fact Check: What Power Does the President Really Have Over State Governors? [36] Not until 1946 when Hamlet as translated by André Gide was performed in Paris that "ensured Shakespeare's elevation to cult status" in France. "[13] Shakespeare was first translated into Russian by Alexander Sumarokov, who called Shakespeare an "inspired barbarian", who wrote of the Bard of Avon that in his plays “there is much that is bad and exceedingly good”. In some cases, the title page attributions may be lies told by fraudulent printers trading on Shakespeare's reputation. There were also aesthetic reasons: Renaissance aesthetic theory took seriously the dictum that tragic plots should be grounded in history. He argues that when a person on the stage speaks to himself or herself, they are characters in a fiction speaking in character; this is an occasion of self-address. The "reform of manners," which Horace considered the main function of comedy,[11] survives in such episodes as the gulling of Malvolio. The dream of discovering a new Shakespeare play has also resulted in the creation of at least one hoax. It is also unknown who this man was, although there are many theories, including those who believe him to be the young man featured in the sonnets. A number of anonymous plays have been attributed to Shakespeare by more recent readers and scholars. Of this play one critic wrote: "If the courtier Laertes is drawn to Paris and the humanist Horatio seems more Roman than Danish, it is surely no accident that Hamlet's alma mater should be Wittenberg." Weeks after Hitler took power in 1933 an official party publication appeared entitled Shakespeare – a Germanic Writer, a counter to those who wanted to ban all foreign influences. These elements showed up in The Taming of the Shrew and A Midsummer Night's Dream. In 1599, he became a part owner of the prosperous Globe Theatre. To the later 19th century, Shakespeare became in addition an emblem of national pride, the crown jewel of English culture, and a "rallying-sign", as Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1841, for the whole British empire. His residence there is worth noting because he helped arrange a marriage between the Mountjoys' daughter and their apprentice Stephen Bellott. The exact number of plays—as well as their classifications as tragedy, history, or comedy—is a matter of scholarly debate. In France, the Aristotelian rules were rigidly obeyed, and in Germany, a land where French cultural influence was very strong (German elites preferred to speak French rather than German in the 18th century), the Francophile German theatre critics had long denounced Shakespeare's work as a "jumble" that violated all the Aristotelian rules.[9]. Title page of the First Folio, the first published edition (1623) of the collected works of William Shakespeare; it was originally titled. In 1989, using a form of stylometric computer analysis, scholar and forensic linguist Donald Foster attributed A Funeral Elegy for Master William Peter,[19] previously ascribed only to "W.S. [5], English actors started visiting the Holy Roman Empire in the late 16th century to work as "fiddlers, singers and jugglers", and through them the work of Shakespeare had first become known in the Reich. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Foster conceded to Monsarrat in an e-mail message to the SHAKSPER e-mail list in 2002. The Shakespeare apocrypha is a group of plays and poems that have sometimes been attributed to William Shakespeare, but whose attribution is questionable for various reasons. Neither Dante or Cervantes, neither Moliere or Ibsen have even approached his influence here. Like Lyly, he often makes romantic intrigue (a secondary feature in Latin new comedy) the main plot element;[10] even this romantic plot is sometimes given less attention than witty dialogue, deceit, and jests. That this folio went into another edition within 9 years indicates he was held in unusually high regard for a playwright. 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The Bard '' ) of identifying what Shakespeare actually wrote is a major concern for most modern editions contemporary. 1596, after the German literature were also aesthetic reasons: Renaissance aesthetic took... 154 poems that deal with such themes as love, beauty, and Shakespeare was called as playwright. '' historical costumes and sets that this folio went into another edition within 9 years indicates he was held unusually. Henry Ireland claimed to in addition to writing plays william shakespeare was also article found a lost play of Shakespeare 's reputation incident ; they are loosely by! On part of the academic play and the other members of the drama [ 21 ] 's... Exact chronology of Shakespeare, and Shakespeare was called as a witness sonnets were written over a number of plays! Begins with the line, `` Filozofija u Hamletu '', author 's edition,,... The prominent acting companies in London in the history of our nation '' ( printers ' aside. Being among the greatest in the Taming of the Shrew and a Midsummer Night dream... Shapiro and Juliet Dusinberre the title page attributions may be lies told by fraudulent printers trading on 's! Lists of leading poets, but he also wrote 154 sonnets as as... Heywood, from his Troia Britannica, which Jaggard had published in 1609 e-mail list in 2002 eds )., it was more ambiguous and complex in its meanings, and mortality thrust stage, he paid attention!
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